When the Economy Changes, Culture Changes - 1858 to 1899

The gold rush of 1858 provides a cornerstone in the history of modern British Columbia. The end of the fur trade period can be conveniently defined by the discovery of gold in Yale in 1858. This discovery started the Fraser River Gold Rush, and the arrival of tens of thousands of miners from the United States and other countries. An influx of miners brought a new economy to British Columbia; the Aboriginal peoples of the Fraser Canyon became very aware that the socio-economic climate was again entering a time of change. Aboriginal leaders started to plan negotiations for relationships with these new immigrants. The Fraser River War can be used as an example that helped define the developing relationship between the Aboriginal people and the new immigrant population. The Aboriginal peoples of the Fraser Canyon wanted a negotiated agreement with the miners and the Colony of British Columbia before allowing the miners to enter their territory. The Fraser Canyon was the territory of the Nlaka’pamux nations, who did not want miners to explore up river beyond Yale and into their territory until an access agreement was negotiated. The miners on the other hand did not think the Aboriginal people could make such a demand. The miners believed that Aboriginal people had no right or title to the land and its resources. A series of brief battles was fought during the weeks that define the Fraser River War. A number of Aboriginal towns were ransacked and burned; men, women, and children were murdered. The war ended with the arrival of Governor Douglas and the Royal Engineers in Yale. Douglas reaffirmed and established government colonial status over the area and told the miners to respect the British law. Douglas also agreed to negotiate with the Nlaka’pamux for their rights and title to the land, river, and resources. It is important to remember that the Aboriginal peoples actively participated in the gold rush. They worked as miners, wagon and pack-train operators, or in the general service and labour industry.

Image courtesy of Royal BC Museum, BC Archives
Government Treatment With the establishment of Fort Victoria and subsequent colonial recognition in 1849, Governor James Douglas recognized existing Aboriginal rights and title, and initiated the negotiation and settlement of a number of treaties. This recognition of Aboriginal rights and title reflects the cooperative cultural heritage of the fur trade. Douglas retired from colonial life in 1864 and the province entered yet another new socio-economic era. This new era can be referred to as the Colonial or Administrative era. The provincial leaders in this new era had little or no understanding of Aboriginal culture and the previous cooperative relationship. Leadership in this administrative colonial era did an about-face in policies and began to deny the existence of Aboriginal rights and title. This era is characterized by a process of alienation and marginalization of BC’s Aboriginal people. For over 100 years, between 1865 and 1999, the British, and later the Canadian Province of British Columbia refused to acknowledge Aboriginal rights and title. The Province of BC considered all Aboriginal issues to be the jurisdiction of the federal government and would not participate in discussion to identify and negotiate a settlement for outstanding Aboriginal issues. The government of Canada did, however, lead discussions with Aboriginal leaders and associations on the recognition of land reserves. Starting in the mid-1880s and continuing through to the 1920s, the Canadian government, Aboriginal leaders, and with limited participation of the BC government, worked to establish a number of reserve lands and communities throughout British Columbia. It is worth mentioning again that the provincial government of British Columbia refused to acknowledge Aboriginal rights and title. This policy stance resulted in negative consequences for the Aboriginal peoples in this province. Throughout the late 19th century, Aboriginal peoples provided the primary labour for the development and operation of the industries that define British Columbia. Aboriginal workers were fishers, cannery workers, ranchers, cowboys, road crews, and worked on building both the Candian Pacific Railway and the Canadian National Railway. The 19th century saw Aboriginal rights and title removed from the Aboriginal peoples of Canada and British Columbia. Aboriginal people in Canada were placed under the guardianship of the federal government. The Indian Act was drafted in 1876 to work on defining this relationship. Throughout the late 19th century, Aboriginal peoples were placed on land reserves and promises of future negotiation were made. Despite their huge involvement in the developing economy, Aboriginal peoples were legally removed from participating in it and made wards of the state: the state being Canada.

Image courtesy of Royal BC Museum, BC Archives
In Sum ... Looking back along the Fraser River in the 19th century, we can see that the human landscape has significantly changed. Throughout what is now British Columbia at the beginning of the 19th century, the Aboriginal population were hunting and gathering cultures, primarily. People utilized the foods and resources that the environment supplied. Aboriginal leaders were aware that change was in the air; Alexander Mackenzie had entered the upper reaches of the Fraser in 1793, and the British and Spanish had entered the Gulf of Georgia in the late 1770s. European trade goods had started to make their way into the region. In British Columbia, the fur trade began operation in earnest by 1810 with forts and trade goods making their way into the territory of the Aboriginal peoples. This new economy changed both the social and economic culture of the Aboriginal peoples. Families started to move together on a more permanent basis to be closer to the trading store and the church. By the mid-1800s, the Gold Rush brought a second new economy to British Columbia. This new economy was based on monetary values and the extraction of resources. Though some Aboriginal people did participate in this economy, many became marginalized by the highly competitive nature of the industry. With the rush of miners came the missionaries and colonial administration. Initially, Aboriginal people participated in the changing economy but were again marginalized for cultural reasons. By the 1880s, the Government of Canada had written the Indian Act. This Act placed the Aboriginal peoples outside mainstream Canada. It defined who was “Indian” and identified their rights. During this time the province of British Columbia maintained the position that the welfare of Aboriginal people was solely the responsibility of the federal Government. The province maintained that outside of the reserve, Aboriginal people had no rights or title to land or resources. The end of the 19th century saw the Aboriginal cultures and peoples in a marginalized condition and under stress. In less than 100 years, Aboriginal cultures encountered, reacted, adapted, and regrouped in a series of social and economic revolutions that European cultures had experienced over a 10,000 year period. It will be interesting to see how the Aboriginal cultures continue to adapt and change as we enter the 21st century.